The patchwork nature of America's public safety net has evolved over centuries, shaped by political winds and changing views on poverty. Understanding this complicated history may help shed light on the core tensions that continue to define debates about who deserves assistance and how it should be provided.

In a paper in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, author Christopher Howard explored how programs targeted at people with low incomes expanded from meager, local support in colonial times to the large-scale programs of today. He draws a distinction between two parallel systems: means-tested programs targeted specifically at low-income Americans and inclusive social insurance programs available to citizens across income levels.

Howard recently spoke with Tyler Smith about the surprising political durability of some targeted programs, the dramatic success of Social Security in reducing elderly poverty, and the ongoing gaps in the public safety net that leave many Americans vulnerable.

Between 2006 and 2013, China’s government poured enormous resources into its shipbuilding industry through various subsidies—from providing free coastal land to offering financing assistance for ship buyers. But estimating the true scale and impact of these policies is challenging, as governments are often opaque about their industrial support programs.

In a paper in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, authors Panle Jia Barwick, Myrto Kalouptsidi, and Nahim Bin Zahur developed new methods for overcoming these measurement challenges and quantifying China’s support for its shipbuilding industry.

Their research reveals which types of industrial policies work best, when they should be implemented, and why countries might pursue them even when the direct economic returns are low. These insights are particularly relevant today, as countries around the world are increasingly embracing industrial policies to support strategic sectors.

Barwick and Kalouptsidi recently spoke with Tyler Smith about how they measured China's shipbuilding subsidies, why entry subsidies are particularly inefficient, and the importance of timing industrial support with market cycles